African Rift Volcanoes Explained: Fire, Faults and a Continent Splitting Apart

What Are African Rift Volcanoes?

African Rift volcanoes are volcanic systems associated with the stretching and fragmentation of continental crust across eastern Africa. Most belong to the broader East African Rift System, although not every volcano in Africa is connected to this rift.

Unlike the volcanoes of Japan, Indonesia or the Andes, African Rift volcanoes are not primarily created by one tectonic plate being forced beneath another. They form within a continental plate that is being pulled apart.

As the crust stretches, it becomes thinner and breaks along large fault systems. Hot mantle material can rise beneath the weakened lithosphere, partially melt and generate magma. That magma may accumulate in the crust or ascend through fractures to erupt at the surface.

Rift volcanism has produced an exceptional variety of landforms, including:

• Basaltic shield volcanoes
• Steep stratovolcanoes
• Broad volcanic plateaus
• Large calderas
• Lava lakes
• Cinder cones
• Fissure eruptions
• Lava-dome complexes
• Volcanic crater lakes
• Geothermal fields
• Carbonatite volcanoes
• Monogenetic volcanic fields

The East African Rift System

The East African Rift System is a continent-scale divergent tectonic boundary. It extends from the Afar region in northeastern Africa through Ethiopia and Kenya before dividing into eastern and western branches farther south.

The system separates two major portions of the African Plate:

• The Nubian Plate, containing much of western and northern Africa
• The Somalian Plate, containing much of eastern Africa

Their movement is slow on a human timescale, generally measured in millimeters per year. Over millions of years, however, even gradual extension can thin the lithosphere, lower portions of the crust and create enormous fault-bounded valleys.

The eastern branch

The eastern branch passes through Ethiopia, Kenya and northern Tanzania. It is highly volcanic and contains the Main Ethiopian Rift, numerous Kenyan calderas and the volcanoes of the Gregory Rift.

Important volcanic systems along or near this branch include Erta Ale, Dabbahu, Aluto, Corbetti, Fentale, Menengai, Longonot, Suswa, Ol Doinyo Lengai, Meru and Kilimanjaro.

The western branch

The western branch curves around the western side of the Lake Victoria region through Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania.

It contains some of Africa’s deepest lakes and most dramatic rift escarpments. Volcanism is less continuous than along the eastern branch but is exceptionally intense in the Virunga region, where Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira remain highly active.

Not one simple crack

The rift is composed of many linked basins, border faults, volcanic segments and zones of distributed deformation. Extension may migrate, concentrate or become temporarily inactive in different areas.

For this reason, the popular image of one enormous crack gradually slicing Africa in half is misleading. Continental breakup occurs through a complex interaction of faulting, magmatism, mantle flow and crustal weakening over immense periods.

How Does Continental Rifting Create Volcanoes?

Continental lithosphere consists of the crust and the rigid uppermost mantle. When tectonic forces pull this lithosphere apart, it stretches and becomes thinner.

1. The continent is uplifted and stretched

Broad uplift affected much of eastern Africa before and during the development of the modern rift. Extension then fractured the elevated crust along large normal faults.

2. Fault blocks move

Some blocks of crust sink between faults, forming elongated rift valleys known as grabens. Neighboring blocks may remain elevated as escarpments and mountain ranges.

3. Hot mantle rises

As the lithosphere thins, hot mantle material rises to shallower depths. The reduction in pressure can cause partial melting through a process known as decompression melting.

4. Magma enters the crust

Magma exploits faults and fractures, intruding as vertical dikes, horizontal sheets and larger storage bodies. Some intrusions cool underground, while others reach the surface.

5. Volcanic centers develop

Repeated magma supply may build shield volcanoes, stratovolcanoes and calderas. In other places, magma erupts from long fissures or forms fields of small cones and lava flows.

Learn more about magma generation, crustal storage and eruption mechanisms in

Volcano Science Explained
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The role of mantle upwelling

The exact structure and influence of deep mantle upwelling beneath eastern Africa remain active areas of research. Seismic imaging and geochemical studies indicate unusually hot and compositionally complex mantle beneath parts of the rift.

This elevated mantle temperature can promote melting, but tectonic extension also plays a critical role by allowing hot material to rise and magma to move through fractured lithosphere.

Afar Triple Junction: Where Three Rifts Meet

The Afar Depression is one of the most tectonically remarkable places on Earth. Here, three major rift systems converge:

• The Red Sea Rift
• The Gulf of Aden Rift
• The Main Ethiopian Rift

This three-way intersection is called the Afar Triple Junction. It marks a region where the Arabian Plate is separating from Africa while the Somalian and Nubian plates are also moving apart.

Much of the Afar Depression lies at or below sea level. Its landscape includes active faults, salt plains, hydrothermal fields, basaltic lava flows, fissures, shield volcanoes and volcanic ranges.

A transition toward oceanic spreading

In parts of Afar, extension is increasingly concentrated into narrow volcanic and tectonic segments. Magma intrudes through dikes in a manner comparable to processes occurring at mid-ocean ridges.

Afar therefore provides scientists with a rare opportunity to observe how continental rifting may evolve toward the creation of a new oceanic basin.

The Danakil Depression

The northern Afar region includes the Danakil Depression, one of Earth’s lowest, hottest and driest landscapes. Evaporite deposits, salt flats and hydrothermal systems occupy basins surrounded by active volcanic centers.

Erta Ale is the region’s best-known volcano, but the broader Afar province contains many volcanic ranges and fissure systems.

Volcanoes of Ethiopia and the Main Ethiopian Rift

Ethiopia contains some of the most diverse and scientifically important rift volcanoes in the world. They extend from the basalt-dominated Afar Depression to large silicic calderas farther south.

Major Ethiopian volcanic systems include:

• Erta Ale
• Dabbahu
• Manda Hararo
• Alayta
• Tat Ali
• Alu-Dalafilla
• Nabro, near the Ethiopia–Eritrea region
• Fentale
• Kone
• Boset-Bericha
• Gedemsa
• Aluto
• Corbetti
• Shala

Basaltic volcanism in Afar

Northern Ethiopia is dominated by basaltic shield volcanoes, lava fields and volcanic fissures. The magma is generally fluid enough to produce extensive lava flows, although explosive activity can occur when magma interacts with water or when gases accumulate.

Silicic calderas farther south

The Main Ethiopian Rift contains several large calderas capable of producing more explosive eruptions. Their magmas may evolve within the crust, becoming richer in silica and more viscous.

Corbetti and Aluto are particularly important because they combine evidence of geologically recent volcanism with geothermal activity, ground deformation and growing nearby populations.

Geothermal energy

The heat associated with shallow magma and hydrothermal circulation makes parts of Ethiopia attractive for geothermal development.

Geothermal energy can provide low-carbon electricity, but volcanic and tectonic conditions must be carefully assessed when locating infrastructure, drilling wells and managing reservoirs.

Volcanoes of the Kenyan Rift

The Kenyan Rift cuts through an elevated landscape of fault escarpments, lakes, volcanic fields and large calderas. Several volcanoes lie near major roads, cities, farms and geothermal developments.

Important Kenyan volcanic systems include:

• Menengai
• Longonot
• Suswa
• Olkaria
• Eburru
• Homa Mountain
• Emuruangogolak
• Silali
• Paka
• Korosi
• Barrier volcanic complex
• Chyulu Hills

Menengai Caldera

Menengai is a large caldera immediately north of Nakuru. Its steep walls enclose younger lava flows, cones and hydrothermal features.

The combination of a large volcanic system, geothermal resources and a substantial nearby population makes Menengai important for both energy development and volcanic-hazard research.

Mount Longonot

Longonot is a prominent stratovolcano and caldera southeast of Lake Naivasha. Its youthful lava flows and well-preserved volcanic landforms show that it remains geologically significant despite its quiet appearance.

Suswa

Suswa is a complex volcanic system containing a large outer caldera and an inner volcanic structure. Lava flows, faulting, caves and geothermal manifestations reveal a long history of interaction between magma and rifting.

Olkaria volcanic complex

Olkaria is one of Africa’s most important geothermal regions. Steam and hot fluids circulating through fractured volcanic rock are used for electricity generation.

The area demonstrates how an active volcanic system can be both a geological hazard and a major energy resource.

Volcanoes of Tanzania

Northern Tanzania contains some of Africa’s most recognizable mountains and unusual volcanic systems. The region lies near the southern part of the eastern rift branch.

Important Tanzanian volcanoes include:

• Ol Doinyo Lengai
• Kilimanjaro
• Mount Meru
• Ngorongoro
• Empakaai
• Olmoti
• Kerimasi
• Gelai
• Hanang
• Rungwe
• Ngozi
• Kyejo

Ol Doinyo Lengai

Ol Doinyo Lengai rises near Lake Natron and is sacred to the Maasai, who call it the Mountain of God. It is the only volcano known to erupt natrocarbonatite lava during historical time.

Fresh natrocarbonatite lava is unusually fluid and relatively cool compared with common silicate lava. It appears dark when erupted but reacts rapidly with moisture and weathers to pale gray or white material.

Kilimanjaro

Kilimanjaro is Africa’s highest mountain and consists of three principal volcanic centers: Shira, Mawenzi and Kibo.

Shira and Mawenzi are deeply eroded. Kibo is the youngest and highest part of the massif. Although Kilimanjaro retains fumarolic and geothermal characteristics, no confirmed Holocene eruption is currently listed by the Smithsonian Global Volcanism Program.

Mount Meru

Mount Meru is a large stratovolcano west of Kilimanjaro. A major sector collapse removed much of its eastern flank, leaving an enormous breached crater and debris-avalanche deposits.

Ngorongoro volcanic highlands

The Ngorongoro region contains giant calderas, volcanic cones and highlands formed by repeated explosive and effusive activity.

Ngorongoro Crater itself is a large volcanic collapse structure that later developed into a distinctive enclosed ecosystem.

Virunga and Albertine Rift Volcanoes

The Virunga volcanic province straddles the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. It lies within the western branch of the East African Rift and contains several large volcanoes.

The Virunga chain includes:

• Nyiragongo
• Nyamuragira
• Karisimbi
• Mikeno
• Bisoke
• Sabyinyo
• Gahinga
• Muhabura

Nyiragongo

Nyiragongo rises north of Goma in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is famous for hosting a long-lived lava lake and for producing unusually fast lava flows during some flank eruptions.

The danger comes not only from lava speed but also from the volcano’s proximity to Goma, surrounding settlements, refugee communities, roads and infrastructure.

Nyamuragira

Nyamuragira is a broad shield volcano northwest of Nyiragongo. It is one of Africa’s most frequently erupting volcanoes and has repeatedly produced lava flows, fissure eruptions, lava fountains and volcanic gas emissions.

Many of its eruptions occur within Virunga National Park, but lava and gas can still affect communities, ecosystems and air quality.

Volcanic gases around Lake Kivu

Carbon dioxide can accumulate in depressions around the Virunga volcanoes, producing locally hazardous areas known as mazuku.

Lake Kivu also contains large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane in its deep waters. The lake’s gas system is not simply an extension of one volcanic crater, but earthquakes, landslides and volcanic activity are among the processes considered in regional risk assessments.

Southern Rift Volcanoes

Volcanism continues through parts of southern Tanzania and adjacent regions, although it becomes more scattered than in Afar or the Main Ethiopian Rift.

Rungwe Volcanic Province

The Rungwe Volcanic Province lies in southwestern Tanzania near the intersection of several rift basins.

Important centers include:

• Rungwe
• Ngozi Caldera
• Kyejo
• Poroto volcanic field

The province has produced explosive eruptions, lava flows, pumice and widespread ash deposits. Agricultural communities, transport routes and the city of Mbeya increase the importance of understanding future activity.

Ngozi Caldera

Ngozi contains a crater lake and is associated with explosive volcanic deposits. Hydrothermal activity and geothermal potential show that heat remains beneath the region.

Kyejo and Rungwe

Kyejo has produced relatively young lava flows, while Mount Rungwe is a large volcanic complex with evidence of explosive eruptions.

These volcanoes receive less international attention than Nyiragongo or Erta Ale, but they may present serious regional hazards.

Major African Rift Volcanoes

African Lava Lakes

Lava lakes are pools of molten rock maintained within a volcanic crater or vent. They require a sufficiently open connection to the magma system and a continuing balance between magma supply, cooling, degassing and drainage.

Two of the world’s most famous lava-lake volcanoes lie within the African Rift:

• Erta Ale in Ethiopia
• Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Why lava lakes rise and fall

The surface level of a lava lake can change as magma supply increases, gas escapes or magma drains into underground fractures.

A falling lava lake does not necessarily mean that volcanic danger has ended. It may indicate that magma has moved away from the summit and entered the volcano’s flanks.

Lava-lake overturning

Cooling lava develops a dark crust. Gas-rich molten material rising from below can break this crust apart, producing glowing fractures, fountains and overturning plates.

Learn more about fluid basaltic eruptions in

Volcano Types Explained
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Ol Doinyo Lengai and Carbonatite Volcanism

Most volcanic lava is dominated by silicate minerals. Ol Doinyo Lengai is different: it has erupted natrocarbonatite lava containing abundant sodium and potassium carbonates.

Unusually cool lava

Natrocarbonatite lava erupts at temperatures far below those of ordinary basalt. It is highly fluid and may form thin, mobile flows across the crater floor.

Rapid weathering

Fresh lava appears dark brown or black. Exposure to atmospheric moisture rapidly alters the carbonate minerals, causing the deposits to become gray or white.

Explosive phases

Ol Doinyo Lengai does not always produce gentle carbonatite flows. More explosive phases may eject ash, blocks and silicate-rich material from the crater.

Its unusual chemistry makes the volcano globally important for understanding carbon-rich magmas and the movement of carbon between Earth’s mantle, crust and atmosphere.

Rift Calderas and Geothermal Fields

Some of the most serious long-term volcanic hazards in eastern Africa come not from famous steep cones but from large caldera systems.

A caldera forms when the roof above a shallow magma reservoir collapses after a substantial volume of magma has erupted or moved elsewhere.

Important African Rift calderas and volcanic complexes include:

• Corbetti
• Aluto
• Shala
• Menengai
• Longonot
• Suswa
• Ngorongoro
• Empakaai
• Ngozi

Explore their formation in

Calderas Explained
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Hydrothermal circulation

Rainwater and groundwater descend through fractured volcanic rock, become heated near magma or hot intrusions and rise again as steam or mineral-rich fluid.

This circulation can produce:

• Hot springs
• Fumaroles
• Steam vents
• Altered ground
• Geothermal reservoirs
• Hydrothermal explosions

Geothermal power

Kenya and Ethiopia have developed geothermal resources within volcanic rift environments. Wells tap hot water and steam that can drive turbines and generate electricity.

Development requires continuous monitoring because fluid extraction, reinjection, natural earthquakes and volcanic processes may all influence the subsurface reservoir.

Eruption Styles of African Rift Volcanoes

Rift volcanoes display an unusually broad spectrum of eruptive behavior. Their activity depends on magma composition, gas content, crustal storage, water interaction and the geometry of faults and conduits.

Effusive basaltic eruptions

Fluid basaltic magma may erupt from summit vents or long fissures, creating lava fountains, lava lakes and extensive flows.

Erta Ale, Nyamuragira and parts of the Afar region commonly produce this style of activity.

Fissure eruptions

Magma may rise through elongated fractures rather than one central crater. Multiple vents can open along the same fissure and feed lava flows over a broad area.

Explosive caldera eruptions

Silica-rich magma stored beneath Ethiopian and Kenyan calderas may produce explosive eruptions involving pumice, ash columns and pyroclastic density currents.

Phreatomagmatic eruptions

Explosive interaction between magma and groundwater or lake water can fragment magma and surrounding rock into fine ash.

Such eruptions may create craters, tuff rings and base surges even when the magma itself would otherwise erupt relatively quietly.

Carbonatite eruptions

Ol Doinyo Lengai produces a globally exceptional style involving low-temperature, carbonate-rich lava.

Sector collapse

Large volcanoes can become structurally unstable because of steep slopes, faulting, earthquakes, hydrothermal alteration and magma intrusion.

Collapse may generate a debris avalanche and remove an entire side of the volcanic edifice, as occurred during the history of Mount Meru.

Major Hazards from African Rift Volcanoes

African Rift volcanoes threaten cities, villages, farms, roads, power facilities, tourist areas and protected ecosystems. The exact danger varies greatly among volcanic provinces.

See the complete overview in

Volcanic Hazards Explained
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Lava flows

Lava flows can burn or bury homes, roads, crops, forests and utility networks. Fluid lava may travel rapidly on steep slopes or through established channels.

Nyiragongo is particularly dangerous because flank fractures can release lava below the summit, shortening warning times for nearby communities.

Volcanic ash

Explosive eruptions can spread ash across large areas. Ash may:

• Reduce visibility
• Damage machinery
• Disrupt aviation
• Contaminate water
• Damage crops
• Harm livestock
• Irritate eyes and lungs
• Overload weak roofs

Pyroclastic density currents

Pyroclastic density currents are hot, fast-moving mixtures of gas, ash and volcanic fragments. They may form through collapsing eruption columns, lateral explosions or lava-dome collapse.

Volcanic gases

Volcanoes release carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide and other gases. High concentrations can cause respiratory distress, acid pollution or death.

Carbon dioxide is especially dangerous because it is invisible and denser than air. It can accumulate in pits, caves and low-lying depressions.

Earthquakes and ground fractures

Rift earthquakes may damage buildings and trigger landslides. Magma intrusion can also open surface cracks, deform roads and disrupt water or utility lines.

Landslides and debris avalanches

Steep volcanic slopes weakened by alteration, rainfall or earthquakes may collapse. Large failures can bury valleys and redirect rivers.

Lahars and floods

Heavy rain can mix with loose ash and volcanic debris to form lahars. Crater lakes and steep drainage systems may add further flood hazards.

Learn more in

Lahars Explained
.

Lake-related gas hazards

Some deep rift lakes contain dissolved gases. Sudden gas release is a distinct process from an ordinary volcanic eruption but may be influenced by the broader geological and hydrothermal environment.

Infrastructure vulnerability

Hazard severity depends not only on the volcano but also on road access, communication networks, building quality, emergency planning, political stability and the ability to evacuate large populations.

Major Historic African Rift Eruptions

Nyiragongo — 1977

In January 1977, fractures opened on Nyiragongo’s flanks and the summit lava lake drained rapidly. Fluid lava descended the volcano at extreme speed, reaching inhabited areas and causing many fatalities.

Nyiragongo — 2002

A flank eruption in January 2002 sent lava through parts of Goma. Homes, roads and sections of the airport were destroyed, while hundreds of thousands of people fled the city and surrounding area.

Nyiragongo — 2021

Another flank eruption began in May 2021. Lava approached Goma, destroyed communities north of the city and was followed by intense earthquakes and ground cracking.

Dabbahu–Manda Hararo — 2005 onward

A major rifting episode began in Ethiopia’s Afar region in 2005. A long magma-filled dike intruded into the crust, producing thousands of earthquakes, surface fractures and localized volcanic activity.

Additional intrusions over the following years showed that continental separation can occur through repeated pulses of magma.

Nabro — 2011

Nabro, near the Eritrea–Ethiopia border region, erupted explosively in June 2011. The eruption produced a high ash and sulfur-dioxide plume, lava flows and widespread disruption.

Ol Doinyo Lengai — 2007–2008

Ol Doinyo Lengai entered a more explosive phase during 2007 and 2008. Ash-producing eruptions contrasted sharply with its more familiar quiet natrocarbonatite lava flows.

Recurring Nyamuragira eruptions

Nyamuragira has erupted repeatedly from summit and flank fissures. Its activity demonstrates that frequent basaltic eruptions can continuously reshape a volcanic landscape even when most flows remain inside a protected or sparsely inhabited region.

Explore other major events in

Historic Volcanic Eruptions
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How Are African Rift Volcanoes Monitored?

Monitoring conditions vary considerably across the African Rift. Some volcanoes have permanent ground networks, while others are observed mainly through satellites, temporary scientific campaigns and reports from local communities.

Seismic monitoring

Seismometers detect earthquakes generated by fault movement, fracturing rock, moving magma and pressurized volcanic fluids.

Changes in earthquake number, location, depth and waveform can provide evidence of developing unrest.

Ground deformation

Magma entering the crust may uplift, stretch or tilt the ground. Deformation is measured using:

• Continuous GPS stations
• Tiltmeters
• Satellite radar interferometry
• Repeated field surveys

Satellite monitoring

Satellites are particularly valuable across remote or inaccessible parts of Africa. They can detect:

• Thermal anomalies
• Lava flows
• Ash and sulfur-dioxide plumes
• Ground deformation
• Changes in crater lakes
• New fractures

Gas measurements

Monitoring sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide can reveal changes in magma supply, degassing and hydrothermal circulation.

Thermal cameras

Infrared instruments measure heat from lava lakes, active vents, lava flows and fumaroles.

Visual observations

Cameras, field teams, pilots, park staff and local residents may provide the first reports of new ash emissions, glowing vents, fissures or unusual gas conditions.

Monitoring challenges

Effective monitoring may be limited by:

• Remote terrain
• Political instability
• Armed conflict
• Equipment theft or damage
• Limited funding
• Poor communications
• Extreme heat or weather
• Large numbers of poorly studied volcanoes

Learn how scientists combine different warning signals in

Volcano Monitoring and Forecasting Explained
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Observatories and Scientific Organizations

Volcano monitoring across eastern Africa involves national agencies, universities, observatories and international research partnerships.

• Goma Volcano Observatory: monitors Nyiragongo, Nyamuragira and volcanic hazards around Goma and Lake Kivu.
• Ethiopian scientific and governmental institutions: monitor earthquakes, geothermal areas and volcanic unrest in Afar and the Main Ethiopian Rift.
• Kenyan institutions: study rift earthquakes, geothermal systems and volcanic centers such as Menengai and Longonot.
• Tanzanian institutions: contribute to monitoring and hazard research around Ol Doinyo Lengai, Kilimanjaro and the Rungwe province.
• Satellite agencies and international observatories: provide thermal, gas, ash and deformation observations across areas with limited ground instrumentation.

During unrest, local civil-protection instructions and information from the responsible national authority should take priority over unofficial social-media reports.

Is Africa Splitting Apart?

Yes, eastern Africa is undergoing continental rifting. However, the process is extremely slow and complex.

The Nubian and Somalian plates are gradually separating. If extension continues for millions of years, parts of eastern Africa could eventually detach from the rest of the continent and an ocean basin could develop between them.

Will it happen soon?

No. A fully developed ocean would require geological timescales, not years, decades or ordinary human historical periods.

Why Afar is important

Afar represents one of the most advanced continental-rifting environments on Earth. Its thin crust, active volcanic segments and connection with the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden make it a natural laboratory for studying the transition from continental rifting to seafloor spreading.

Do giant cracks mean a new ocean has suddenly opened?

Surface fissures may form during heavy rainfall, erosion, fault movement, earthquakes or magma intrusion. A dramatic crack photographed at the surface does not by itself mark the sudden formation of a new ocean.

Continental breakup involves deformation spread across large regions and depths, not one visible trench splitting an entire continent overnight.

Living with African Rift Volcanoes

Rift volcanism creates both hazards and benefits. Volcanic soils support agriculture, crater lakes supply water, highlands influence rainfall and geothermal systems provide energy.

Volcanic landscapes also attract tourism and hold profound cultural and spiritual importance.

Rapid urban growth

Cities such as Goma, Addis Ababa, Hawassa, Nakuru, Naivasha, Arusha and Mbeya lie within broader volcanic or rift environments.

Population growth expands housing and infrastructure into areas that may be exposed to lava, ash, earthquakes, landslides or ground cracking.

Hazard maps

Hazard maps identify areas that may be affected by lava flows, ashfall, pyroclastic currents, gases, lahars or landslides.

They cannot predict the exact path of every future event, but they provide a foundation for land-use planning and evacuation.

Community observations

Residents often notice changes before distant scientific teams, including:

• New cracks
• Unusual earthquakes
• Changes in springs or wells
• Strong sulfur odors
• New steam emissions
• Changes in crater lakes
• Falling ash
• Glowing vents at night

Community reports are most effective when reliable channels exist for passing observations to scientists and emergency agencies.

How African Rift Volcanoes Differ from Other Volcanic Regions

African Rift volcanoes form mainly because a continent is diverging. This contrasts with the subduction-related volcanoes of the Andes, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, Kamchatka and New Zealand.

Compare the region with:

• 
  Andean Volcanoes
  
• 
  Iceland Volcanoes
  
• 
  Hawaiian Volcanoes
  
• 
  Indonesian Volcanoes
  
• 
  New Zealand Volcanoes