Earthquake Records & Statistics: Largest, Deadliest, Deepest and Costliest Earthquakes

How Earthquake Records and Statistics Are Measured

An earthquake can hold several very different records. One event may
release the most seismic energy, while another causes the greatest
ground acceleration, the highest tsunami, the largest number of deaths
or the greatest financial loss.

Meaningful earthquake comparisons begin by identifying exactly what is
being measured.

Why moment magnitude replaced the Richter scale

The phrase “Richter scale” remains common in news reports, but it is not
the preferred measurement for the world’s largest earthquakes. The
original local magnitude scale was developed for earthquakes recorded in
Southern California and becomes less useful for very large events.

Moment magnitude estimates earthquake size from the fault area that
ruptured, the amount of slip and the rigidity of the rocks. It can
therefore represent enormous megathrust earthquakes more accurately.

Magnitude is logarithmic rather than linear. An increase of one whole
magnitude unit represents roughly:

• 10 times greater recorded wave amplitude; and
• approximately 32 times more energy release.

A magnitude 9.0 earthquake does not release slightly more energy than a
magnitude 8.0 earthquake. It releases about 32 times as much. A magnitude
9.0 event releases roughly 1,000 times more energy than a magnitude 7.0
event.

Learn more in the

Earthquake Science Explained

guide.

Largest Earthquakes Ever Recorded

The largest earthquakes measured by modern seismology have almost all
occurred along subduction-zone megathrust faults. These
plate boundaries allow hundreds or even more than one thousand
kilometers of fault to rupture during a single event.

The largest instrumentally recorded earthquake remains the
May 22, 1960 Valdivia earthquake in southern Chile,
with an estimated moment magnitude of 9.5.

Data note: Earthquake magnitudes may be revised when
researchers recalculate seismic moment using improved data or analytical
methods. Events with equal or nearly equal magnitudes may therefore
change position in different scientific catalogs.

The 1960 Valdivia earthquake: magnitude 9.5

The Great Chilean earthquake ruptured a huge section of the plate
boundary where the Nazca Plate descends beneath South America. The
rupture extended for hundreds of kilometers along southern Chile and
produced widespread land deformation.

The earthquake generated a Pacific-wide tsunami that affected Chile,
Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines and other distant coastlines. It
demonstrated that a single megathrust rupture can disturb the entire
Pacific Ocean basin.

Because the 1960 earthquake occurred during the instrumental era and was
recorded by a global seismic network, it is normally described as the
largest earthquake ever instrumentally recorded.

The 1964 Great Alaska earthquake: magnitude 9.2

The Great Alaska earthquake ruptured the plate boundary beneath Prince
William Sound. It caused violent shaking, landslides, ground failure,
coastal subsidence, uplift and destructive local and Pacific-wide
tsunamis.

It remains the largest recorded earthquake in the United States and the
second largest instrumentally measured earthquake worldwide.

The 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake: magnitude 9.1

On December 26, 2004, a massive section of the Sunda megathrust ruptured
off northern Sumatra. The rupture propagated northward for approximately
1,300 kilometers through the Andaman region.

Seafloor displacement generated the catastrophic Indian Ocean tsunami.
Communities in Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and many other
countries were struck, making it one of the deadliest natural disasters
in modern history.

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake: magnitude 9.1

The March 11, 2011 Tōhoku earthquake ruptured the Japan Trench
megathrust east of Honshu. Exceptionally large fault slip near the trench
displaced the seafloor and produced a devastating tsunami.

The disaster caused more than 18,000 deaths or missing persons and
triggered the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident. It also became one of
the most economically destructive natural disasters ever documented.

Explore how these giant ruptures work in

Subduction-Zone Earthquakes Explained
.

Deadliest Earthquakes in History

The deadliest earthquake is not the same as the strongest earthquake.
Human losses depend on population density, building vulnerability, time
of day, emergency response, weather, fire, landslides, disease and
tsunami exposure.

A moderate or large earthquake beneath a densely populated city with
weak construction can kill more people than a magnitude 9 earthquake
beneath a remote oceanic region.

Historical-data warning: Death estimates for ancient and
early modern earthquakes should not be treated as exact counts.
Population records were incomplete, affected regions were difficult to
survey and some chronicles combined earthquake deaths with later famine,
fire or disease.

The 1556 Shaanxi earthquake

The 1556 Shaanxi earthquake in north-central China is commonly described
as the deadliest earthquake in recorded history. Traditional estimates
place the death toll at approximately 830,000.

Many residents lived in artificial caves carved into loess deposits.
These dwellings were highly vulnerable to collapse during strong shaking.
Landslides, ground failure and the destruction of settlements across a
broad region contributed to the enormous loss of life.

The estimated death toll is historically important but should not be
interpreted with the precision of a modern disaster count.

The 1976 Tangshan earthquake

The Tangshan earthquake struck an industrial city in northeastern China
during the early morning, when much of the population was asleep. The
shallow earthquake caused widespread collapse in a city containing many
vulnerable masonry buildings.

China’s official death toll is approximately 242,000, although larger
unofficial estimates have circulated. Tangshan remains one of the
deadliest reliably documented earthquakes of the twentieth century.

The 2004 Indian Ocean disaster

The 2004 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake was not only one of the largest
earthquakes ever recorded. Its tsunami killed more people than any other
documented tsunami in history.

The waves crossed the Indian Ocean with little regional warning
capability in place. In several countries, the tsunami arrived after the
strongest shaking had ended or where the earthquake itself was barely
felt.

The 2010 Haiti earthquake

The Haiti earthquake illustrates why magnitude alone does not determine
disaster severity. The event was far smaller than the great megathrust
earthquakes of Chile, Alaska, Sumatra or Japan, but it occurred close to
a densely populated urban area with highly vulnerable buildings and
limited emergency-response capacity.

Published death estimates vary greatly, making Haiti an important example
of the uncertainty that can surround casualty statistics even in the
modern era.

Why some earthquakes become mass-casualty disasters

• Shallow hypocenter beneath or near a city
• Large population exposed to strong shaking
• Unreinforced masonry or poorly engineered concrete buildings
• Nighttime occurrence while residents are indoors
• Landslides, liquefaction, fire or tsunami
• Weak emergency services and damaged transportation networks
• Cold, heat, rain or other difficult post-disaster conditions
• Delayed medical treatment and shortages of clean water

For detailed accounts of major disasters, visit

Historic Earthquakes Explained
.

Deepest Earthquakes Ever Recorded

Most earthquakes occur in the brittle crust at relatively shallow
depths. Deep earthquakes are unusual because pressure and temperature
generally make mantle rocks deform differently from brittle rocks near
Earth’s surface.

Seismologists commonly divide earthquakes into three depth categories:

• Shallow-focus earthquakes: 0–70 kilometers deep
• Intermediate-focus earthquakes: 70–300 kilometers deep
• Deep-focus earthquakes: 300–700 kilometers deep

Nearly all intermediate and deep earthquakes occur inside cold oceanic
plates descending into the mantle at subduction zones. These inclined
belts of seismicity are known as
Wadati–Benioff zones.

The 2015 Ogasawara earthquake

On May 30, 2015, a magnitude 7.8–7.9 earthquake occurred beneath the
Ogasawara, or Bonin, Islands region of Japan at a depth greater than
660 kilometers.

It is widely recognized as the
deepest major earthquake ever instrumentally recorded.
Despite its extraordinary depth, shaking was detected across much of
Japan.

Its great depth reduced the intensity of local surface shaking compared
with an equivalent shallow earthquake. However, seismic waves from deep
earthquakes can travel efficiently through the mantle and may be felt
across unusually broad areas.

The disputed 751-kilometer aftershock

A later scientific analysis proposed that a small aftershock associated
with the 2015 Ogasawara sequence occurred at approximately 751
kilometers depth, which would place it in the lower mantle.

That interpretation has subsequently been challenged. A newer
reanalysis did not confirm convincing evidence for the ultra-deep
aftershock. The proposed 751-kilometer event should therefore be
described as a disputed detection, not an uncontested
world record.

Other major deep-focus earthquakes

Deep earthquakes occur most frequently beneath regions where old, cold
oceanic lithosphere descends rapidly. Important deep-seismicity regions
include:

• Tonga and Fiji in the southwest Pacific
• The Ogasawara and Izu–Bonin subduction systems beneath Japan
• The Kuril Islands and Kamchatka
• Indonesia and the Banda Sea
• South America beneath Bolivia, Peru and Argentina

Some of the largest deep earthquakes include the 1994 Bolivia earthquake
and large events beneath the Sea of Okhotsk, Fiji and the western
Pacific.

How can earthquakes happen hundreds of kilometers deep?

Ordinary shallow earthquakes occur when accumulated stress overcomes
friction and brittle rock fractures or slides along a fault. Conditions
are different at depths of several hundred kilometers, where pressure
and temperature are extreme.

Proposed deep-earthquake mechanisms include:

• Mineral phase transformations: minerals may change
  crystal structure under increasing pressure, producing instability.
• Metastable olivine transformation: unusually cold
  material may preserve olivine deeper than expected before rapid
  transformation triggers failure.
• Dehydration reactions: water released from minerals
  may weaken parts of the descending slab.
• Thermal or transformational runaway: localized
  deformation may generate heat and concentrate failure.

Scientists continue to debate how these mechanisms interact and why some
subducting slabs produce far more deep earthquakes than others.

Costliest Earthquakes in History

Identifying the costliest earthquake is more complicated than ranking
magnitudes. Financial estimates can include different combinations of:

• Destroyed buildings and infrastructure
• Insured property losses
• Uninsured private losses
• Business interruption
• Emergency response
• Temporary housing
• Reconstruction programs
• Supply-chain disruption
• Nuclear or industrial accidents
• Inflation and changes in currency value

A disaster may rank first under one method and lower under another.
Figures reported shortly after an earthquake may also differ greatly from
later government or insurance-industry assessments.

The 2011 Tōhoku disaster

The 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami is widely regarded as the
costliest natural disaster in modern economic terms. Loss estimates vary,
but the total reached hundreds of billions of dollars when physical
damage, reconstruction, industrial disruption and nuclear consequences
are considered.

Japan’s advanced economy increased the monetary value of destroyed
infrastructure and property. At the same time, strong building codes
prevented an even larger death toll from earthquake shaking itself.
Most fatalities were caused by the tsunami.

The 1995 Kobe earthquake

The Great Hanshin earthquake struck the densely urbanized Kobe region,
damaging highways, railways, port facilities, homes and commercial
buildings.

Although its magnitude was far below that of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake,
its shallow depth and proximity to a major urban-industrial corridor
produced enormous losses.

Why wealthier countries can record larger financial losses

Economic-loss statistics often appear paradoxical. A wealthy country may
record far greater monetary damage while suffering fewer deaths than a
poorer country struck by a similar earthquake.

Wealthier countries generally contain more expensive buildings,
infrastructure, factories and insured assets. Stronger construction and
emergency systems may reduce fatalities, but the monetary value of
damaged property remains extremely high.

In lower-income countries, official dollar losses may appear smaller even
when the disaster destroys a much larger share of national wealth and
causes much greater human suffering.

Earthquakes by Country

Earthquakes do not follow political borders. They cluster along tectonic
plate boundaries, active faults, collision zones and rifts. A country’s
earthquake activity therefore depends largely on its position relative
to those geological structures.

Countries around the Pacific Ring of Fire experience many of the world’s
largest and most frequent earthquakes. Other major seismic belts extend
from the Mediterranean through Türkiye, Iran, the Himalayas and Southeast
Asia.

Which country has the most earthquakes?

There is no single answer unless the comparison defines:

• minimum magnitude;
• time period;
• land area or offshore territory;
• whether aftershocks are included;
• catalog completeness; and
• whether the count refers to detected or damaging earthquakes.

Japan records an enormous number of earthquakes because it lies above
several plate boundaries and maintains one of the world’s densest seismic
networks. Indonesia occupies an exceptionally complex and active plate
boundary. Chile has experienced some of the largest known megathrust
earthquakes, while Alaska records more earthquakes than any other U.S.
state.

A country with a dense network may report more small earthquakes than a
similarly active country with fewer instruments. Raw catalog counts
should therefore not be treated as a perfect measure of tectonic
activity.

Countries with high earthquake risk

Earthquake activity and earthquake risk are related but not identical.
Risk combines the probability of hazardous shaking with population
exposure and vulnerability.

A country can have frequent earthquakes but relatively low mortality
because of strong construction. Another country may experience fewer
earthquakes but face extreme risk because buildings are vulnerable and
major cities lie close to active faults.

Factors controlling national earthquake risk include:

• Location and recurrence of active faults
• Population density near seismic sources
• Building-code quality and enforcement
• Age and condition of buildings
• Local soil amplification and liquefaction potential
• Tsunami exposure
• Mountainous terrain and landslide susceptibility
• Emergency-response capacity
• Public preparedness and earthquake education

Explore tectonic regions in

Regional Seismic Systems Explained
.

Earthquakes by Year

Annual earthquake totals fluctuate, but this does not necessarily mean
that global seismic activity is steadily increasing or decreasing.
Earthquake occurrence is naturally irregular.

One year may contain several magnitude 8 earthquakes, while another has
none. Large earthquake sequences can also generate thousands of
aftershocks, temporarily increasing regional and global catalog totals.

What should an annual earthquake summary include?

A useful year-by-year earthquake record should separate events by
magnitude and impact rather than presenting one undifferentiated total.

Notable earthquake years

1960

The magnitude 9.5 Valdivia earthquake established the modern record for
the largest instrumentally measured earthquake.

1964

The magnitude 9.2 Great Alaska earthquake became the largest recorded
earthquake in United States history.

1976

The Tangshan earthquake in China made 1976 one of the deadliest
earthquake years of the twentieth century.

2004

The magnitude 9.1 Sumatra–Andaman earthquake and Indian Ocean tsunami
caused more than 227,000 deaths or missing persons across multiple
countries.

2010

The year included the catastrophic Haiti earthquake and the magnitude
8.8 Maule earthquake in Chile, demonstrating two very different forms of
earthquake disaster.

2011

The magnitude 9.1 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami devastated northeastern
Japan. The damaging Christchurch earthquake also struck New Zealand that
year.

2023

The February 2023 Türkiye–Syria earthquake sequence caused catastrophic
destruction and tens of thousands of deaths. A devastating earthquake
also struck Morocco in September, followed by a deadly earthquake in
western Afghanistan in October.

Are earthquakes becoming more frequent?

Modern earthquake catalogs contain far more small events than early
twentieth-century catalogs because the global monitoring network has
expanded dramatically.

Sensitive digital instruments can now detect earthquakes in remote
oceans, polar regions and sparsely populated continental interiors that
would once have gone unrecorded.

As a result, an increase in the number of
detected earthquakes does not automatically indicate an increase
in the number of earthquakes actually occurring.

For long-term comparisons, scientists normally examine magnitude ranges
for which the global catalog is considered reasonably complete. Counts
of major earthquakes are more comparable across recent decades than
counts of tiny local earthquakes.

How Many Earthquakes Occur Each Year?

Earth is continuously releasing tectonic stress. Seismic instruments
detect many thousands of earthquakes every year, but most are too small,
too deep or too remote to cause damage.

Average annual estimates are useful for understanding scale, but they are
not predictions. The actual number in any individual year may be higher
or lower.

Important: These are rounded long-term averages, not
fixed yearly quotas. The numbers also depend on catalog thresholds and
detection capability.

Why earthquake counts fluctuate

• Random clustering: large earthquakes are not evenly
  spaced through time.
• Aftershock sequences: one major earthquake can produce
  thousands of recorded aftershocks.
• Earthquake swarms: volcanic, tectonic or fluid-driven
  swarms may generate many events without one dominant mainshock.
• Improved monitoring: new instruments detect smaller
  events.
• Catalog changes: agencies may revise magnitudes,
  remove duplicate detections or relocate hypocenters.
• Induced seismicity: wastewater injection, reservoir
  loading and other human activities can alter regional counts.

Learn more about human-triggered events in

Induced Seismicity and Man-Made Earthquakes Explained
.

Why Earthquake Rankings and Statistics Change

Earthquake databases are scientific products, not immutable lists.
Locations, magnitudes, depths, casualties and economic losses can all be
updated.

Magnitude revisions

Initial magnitudes are calculated rapidly so that authorities and the
public receive timely information. Later estimates may incorporate more
stations, longer-period seismic waves, geodetic measurements and improved
fault models.

Depth revisions

Earthquake depth can be difficult to determine, especially in regions
with sparse seismic stations. Improved velocity models and additional
recordings may shift the calculated hypocenter.

Historical uncertainty

Earthquakes before modern instrumentation are reconstructed from written
accounts, damaged buildings, geological evidence and tsunami deposits.
Their magnitudes and death tolls are estimates rather than direct
measurements.

Casualty revisions

Early disaster reports may include duplicate names, missing people or
deaths indirectly associated with displacement and disease. Governments
and international databases may use different inclusion rules.

Economic revisions

Initial damage estimates are often incomplete. Later assessments may add
infrastructure, business interruption and reconstruction expenses.
Inflation adjustment can dramatically change historical rankings.

Catalog completeness

The modern global catalog is much more complete than historical records,
especially for small earthquakes. Comparing raw totals from 1920 and
2020 would mostly measure changes in seismic monitoring rather than a
true change in global tectonic activity.

Trusted Sources for Earthquake Data

Reliable earthquake research should begin with scientific agencies and
carefully maintained disaster databases.

• USGS Earthquake Hazards Program:
  real-time earthquakes, historical catalogs, magnitude statistics and
  event-specific scientific information.
• International Seismological Centre:
  reviewed global earthquake bulletins and instrumental catalogs.
• NOAA National Centers for Environmental Information:
  historical significant-earthquake and tsunami databases.
• EM-DAT International Disaster Database:
  global disaster casualties, affected populations and economic-loss
  information.
• National geological and meteorological agencies:
  detailed regional earthquake catalogs and local intensity reports.

News reports are useful for immediate updates but should not be treated
as the final authority for magnitude, depth, death toll or financial
loss. Preliminary values frequently change during the days, months and
years following a major disaster.