Sting Jets Explained: Formation, Destructive Winds and Forecasting

What Is a Sting Jet?

A sting jet is a mesoscale stream of rapidly descending air that forms within the cloud head of some intense extratropical cyclones.

The air begins in the middle levels of the storm, commonly several kilometers above the surface. It then descends toward the ground while moving around the cyclone.

If the current retains enough momentum and penetrates the near-surface layer, it can produce a concentrated swath of damaging or destructive winds.

What makes a sting jet unusual?

A large extratropical cyclone already contains powerful winds around its low-pressure center.

A sting jet may add a separate localized wind maximum that:

• develops above the surface;
• descends rapidly;
• occupies a relatively narrow area;
• moves with the cyclone;
• produces stronger gusts than nearby parts of the storm;
• lasts for only part of the cyclone’s life cycle.

Why Is It Called a Sting Jet?

Mature extratropical cyclones can develop a cloud head that curls around the low-pressure center.

In satellite imagery, the tip of this hooked cloud feature may resemble a scorpion’s tail.

The strongest descending winds can emerge near the end of that hooked cloud head—the apparent “sting” in the tail.

Is the sting a visible cloud?

The hooked cloud head can be visible from satellites, but the actual descending jet is an airflow rather than a distinct cloud that people can reliably identify from the ground.

Does every scorpion-tail cloud contain a sting jet?

No. A hooked cloud head is an important clue, but its presence alone does not prove that a sting jet exists.

Meteorologists must also evaluate:

• airflow trajectories;
• descent rates;
• wind speeds;
• humidity;
• stability;
• surface observations;
• the cyclone’s frontal structure.

Sting Jets Are Features of Extratropical Cyclones

A sting jet cannot exist independently of its parent extratropical cyclone.

Extratropical cyclones are large low-pressure systems powered by horizontal temperature contrasts. They commonly contain warm fronts, cold fronts, cloud bands and broad regions of strong wind.

The sting jet forms within this larger circulation.

Most extratropical cyclones do not produce sting jets

Sting jets require a particular combination of cyclone structure, moisture, instability and descending airflow.

A storm may become very deep and destructive without developing a sting jet.

Parent storm guide:
Extratropical Cyclones and Windstorms Explained.

Where Does a Sting Jet Fit Inside the Cyclone?

Intense extratropical cyclones contain several major airflow regions capable of producing strong winds.

Warm conveyor belt

A broad current of warm moist air rises ahead of the cyclone and contributes to cloud and precipitation formation.

Cold conveyor belt

Cooler air flows around the northern or western side of the cyclone and may accelerate near the bent-back front.

Dry intrusion

Dry air descends from higher levels and wraps toward the cyclone center, often creating a dry slot in satellite imagery.

Sting jet

The sting jet descends from the cloud head between or near these broader airstreams.

It is generally:

• narrower than the cold conveyor belt;
• shorter-lived;
• initially located higher above the surface;
• associated with the evaporating tip of the cloud head;
• capable of creating an additional near-surface wind maximum.

The Shapiro–Keyser Cyclone Model

Sting jets are especially associated with extratropical cyclones that evolve according to the Shapiro–Keyser model.

This conceptual model describes a cyclone whose frontal structure develops differently from the classic Norwegian cyclone model.

Stage 1: Frontal wave

A disturbance forms along a strong temperature boundary.

Stage 2: Frontal fracture

The cold front becomes separated or fractured near the cyclone center rather than wrapping directly into a traditional occlusion.

Stage 3: Bent-back front

The warm front curls around the cyclone center and develops a bent-back section.

Stage 4: Warm-core seclusion

A pocket of relatively warm air may become enclosed near the center while the cloud head wraps around it.

The hooked cloud head and bent-back front create the storm geometry frequently associated with sting-jet development.

The Hooked Cloud Head

The cloud head is a broad region of cloud and precipitation wrapping around the northern and western side of a developing cyclone.

As the storm matures, the cloud head may curl around the center and take on a hooked appearance.

Cloud-head tip

The tip of the cloud head often becomes thinner as dry air intrudes and cloud droplets evaporate.

Sting-jet air descends from this evaporating or fragmenting cloud-head region.

Cloud-head erosion

Satellite imagery may show a narrowing cloud filament curling around the cyclone center.

Meteorologists examine this region for signs of:

• rapid cloud erosion;
• dry-slot intrusion;
• strong winds aloft;
• descending trajectories;
• the development of a mesoscale surface wind maximum.

What Is a Bent-Back Front?

A bent-back front is a frontal boundary that curves around the western or southwestern side of a mature cyclone.

It develops as the storm’s warm-frontal structure wraps around the low-pressure center.

Why it matters

The bent-back front marks a region with:

• very strong horizontal pressure gradients;
• rapid wind-direction changes;
• intense precipitation;
• strong cold-conveyor-belt winds;
• possible sting-jet descent nearby.

The strongest sting-jet winds commonly reach the surface near or just ahead of the bent-back front.

Related science:
Frontal Systems and Weather Fronts Explained.

How Do Sting Jets Form?

Sting-jet formation involves air moving through the cloud head of an intense cyclone and then descending toward the surface.

A simplified sequence is:

1. An extratropical cyclone rapidly develops and forms a hooked cloud head.
2. A bent-back front wraps around the low-pressure center.
3. Air within the cloud head begins moving toward its narrowing tip.
4. Dry air intrudes into the cyclone and cloud droplets begin evaporating.
5. Evaporative cooling may make the cloudy air denser.
6. Conditional symmetric instability may organize slantwise descent.
7. The current accelerates while descending several kilometers.
8. Strong winds penetrate the lower atmosphere.
9. A narrow corridor of exceptional surface gusts develops.

The relative importance of each mechanism differs between storms.

Sting jets should therefore be understood as a family of related descending-air processes rather than one perfectly identical mechanism in every cyclone.

Why Does Air Descend From the Cloud Head?

Air descending from the cloud head is influenced by the changing balance of temperature, moisture, pressure and momentum inside the cyclone.

Cloud evaporation

Dry air entering the cloud causes droplets to evaporate. Evaporation absorbs heat and cools the air.

Increased density

Cooler air becomes denser relative to its surroundings and may accelerate downward.

Pressure-gradient forces

Strong pressure differences around the cyclone help accelerate horizontal airflow as it descends.

Slantwise instability

The atmosphere may become unstable to motions that occur diagonally rather than directly upward or downward.

Existing momentum

The descending air already possesses strong horizontal momentum. If it reaches the surface, that momentum becomes destructive wind.

Evaporative Cooling and Sting-Jet Acceleration

Evaporation is one of the best-known mechanisms proposed to support sting-jet descent.

The process is:

1. Dry air mixes with cloudy air near the cloud-head tip.
2. Cloud droplets and precipitation evaporate.
3. Evaporation removes heat from the surrounding air.
4. The air cools and becomes denser.
5. Negative buoyancy strengthens the downward motion.

Does evaporation create every sting jet?

No. Some modeled or observed sting jets appear less dependent on evaporative cooling than others.

The process may strengthen descent without being the only cause.

The Role of the Dry Intrusion

A dry intrusion is a stream of relatively dry air descending from the upper troposphere into the cyclone.

On satellite images, it often appears as a dry slot cutting into the storm’s cloud shield.

How the dry intrusion affects the cloud head

• It promotes cloud evaporation.
• It sharpens the cloud-head boundary.
• It separates different cyclone airstreams.
• It may contribute to turbulence and mixing.
• It helps expose the hooked or scorpion-tail cloud pattern.

Is the dry intrusion itself the sting jet?

No. The dry intrusion and sting jet are distinct airstreams, although they interact closely.

Sting-jet air generally originates within the cloud head rather than within the driest part of the upper-level intrusion.

Conditional Symmetric Instability and Sting Jets

Conditional symmetric instability, often abbreviated CSI, is an atmospheric instability involving slantwise motion.

Instead of rising vertically like a thunderstorm updraft, air moves diagonally through an environment that is stable to vertical motion but unstable along a tilted path.

Why CSI may matter

CSI can organize the cloud head into narrow bands of rising and descending air.

In sting-jet environments, it may:

• enhance slantwise descent;
• concentrate momentum into a narrow current;
• create banded cloud structures;
• increase local wind maxima;
• help explain why the jet remains narrower than the parent cyclone.

Is CSI required?

Research indicates that CSI may support many sting jets, but not every event has the same instability profile.

It is one diagnostic ingredient rather than a universal single-cause explanation.

How Does the Sting Jet Reach the Surface?

A descending current does not automatically produce damaging surface wind.

The sting jet must pass through the lower atmosphere, where friction and atmospheric stability can weaken it.

Boundary-layer mixing

Turbulence mixes momentum from the descending jet toward the ground.

Heavy precipitation

Rain or graupel may help create downdrafts and turbulent mixing beneath the jet.

Drying behind precipitation

The jet may descend into a region where cloud and rain are evaporating, allowing stronger momentum to reach lower levels.

Surface roughness

Forests, cities and complex terrain increase friction but also create turbulent gusts.

Stable near-surface air

A strong stable layer can keep the fastest wind above the surface.

The worst damage occurs when the descending current penetrates or mixes through that layer.

How Large and Long-Lived Is a Sting Jet?

Sting jets are much smaller than the cyclones containing them.

Horizontal scale

A sting jet may be tens to a few hundred kilometers wide or long, depending on how the feature is defined and observed.

Vertical origin

Air commonly descends from the middle troposphere, several kilometers above the surface.

Lifetime

The descending current may persist for several hours.

One location generally experiences the most intense winds for a shorter period as the jet moves with the cyclone.

Damage swath

Because the cyclone is moving rapidly, a relatively compact jet can leave a long corridor of damage.

Where Do Sting Jets Occur?

Sting jets are best documented in powerful North Atlantic and European extratropical cyclones.

Frequently affected or studied regions include:

• the North Atlantic Ocean;
• Ireland;
• the United Kingdom;
• France;
• Belgium;
• the Netherlands;
• Germany;
• Denmark;
• the North Sea;
• Scandinavia.

Outside Europe

Similar descending airstreams may occur in intense cyclones over:

• the North Pacific;
• the Bering Sea;
• the Southern Ocean;
• other active mid-latitude storm tracks.

However, the concept has been researched most extensively in European windstorms because of their dense observation networks and major societal impacts.

When Are Sting Jets Most Likely?

Sting jets are most strongly associated with the cool-season extratropical cyclone season.

Across the North Atlantic and Europe, the greatest risk generally occurs from autumn through winter.

Why the cool season?

• Temperature contrasts between polar and subtropical air are stronger.
• The jet stream is often more energetic.
• North Atlantic cyclones deepen more rapidly.
• Large pressure gradients support severe windstorms.
• Shapiro–Keyser cyclone structures become more common.

Sting jets are not strictly impossible outside winter, but the most favorable large-scale storm environments are concentrated in the cool season.

What Damage Can a Sting Jet Cause?

Sting-jet winds can create severe damage over a relatively narrow corridor.

Possible impacts include:

• widespread tree falls;
• forest blowdown;
• roof failures;
• damage to chimneys and cladding;
• power-line and transmission damage;
• blocked roads and railways;
• vehicle overturning;
• coastal infrastructure damage;
• aviation and ferry disruption;
• injuries from falling trees and debris.

Localized extreme damage

One of the defining characteristics is the contrast between the sting-jet corridor and surrounding regions.

Two locations relatively close together may report dramatically different peak gusts and damage.

Saturated ground

Extratropical cyclones often produce heavy rain before or during the strongest winds.

Wet soil reduces tree-root support, increasing the risk of uprooting.

Why Sting Jets Cause Severe Forest Damage

Forests are especially vulnerable to sudden extreme winds.

Tree uprooting

Wet soil, shallow roots and strong gusts can overturn entire trees.

Trunk breakage

Trees may snap when wind loading exceeds the strength of the trunk.

Domino effects

Falling trees can strike neighboring trees and expand the damaged area.

Edge exposure

Trees along forest edges or recently cleared areas are less protected by surrounding vegetation.

Long-term consequences

Large blowdowns affect:

• timber resources;
• wildlife habitat;
• carbon storage;
• forest-fire fuel loads;
• transport and power infrastructure;
• future pest outbreaks.

Buildings, Roofs and Power Networks

Roof uplift

Extreme wind passing over a roof creates pressure differences that can lift tiles, panels and entire roof sections.

Progressive structural failure

Once the building envelope is breached, internal pressure may rise and increase damage.

Windborne debris

Tiles, branches and construction materials become projectiles capable of breaking windows and damaging neighboring structures.

Electricity networks

Trees and branches can fall across distribution and transmission lines.

Strong winds may also damage:

• poles;
• towers;
• transformers;
• communication antennas;
• substations.

Cascading disruption

Power failures can affect water pumping, heating, transport, communication and emergency services.

Coastal and Marine Hazards

Sting jets often occur in cyclones crossing the North Atlantic or nearby seas, where extreme wind overlaps with high waves and coastal flooding.

Wave growth

Strong winds transfer energy to the ocean and generate steep, chaotic seas.

Storm surge

Low atmospheric pressure and persistent onshore wind can raise coastal water levels.

Harbors

Mooring lines, docks and vessels may fail under sudden extreme gusts.

Ferries and shipping

Routes may close because of dangerous wind, waves and reduced maneuverability.

Coastal infrastructure

Seawalls, ports, power facilities and exposed roads may face combined wind and wave impacts.

Related coastal hazard:
Storm Surge and Coastal Flooding Explained.

Road, Rail and Aviation Hazards

Road transport

• High-sided vehicles may overturn.
• Trees and debris can block roads.
• Heavy rain may reduce visibility.
• Sudden crosswinds can push vehicles into other lanes.

Railways

• Fallen trees may obstruct tracks.
• Power lines can be damaged.
• Trains may face reduced speed limits.
• Stations and overhead equipment may be affected.

Aviation

• Rapid wind changes create dangerous approach conditions.
• Crosswinds may exceed aircraft limits.
• Turbulence affects takeoff and landing.
• Airports may close during peak gusts.
• Ground equipment and parked aircraft may be damaged.

Difference from a microburst

A microburst creates especially severe wind shear over a compact area near a thunderstorm.

A sting jet affects a larger moving corridor within a broad extratropical storm.

How Are Sting Jets Forecast?

Sting-jet forecasting requires detailed analysis of the cyclone’s internal three-dimensional structure.

Meteorologists examine:

• cyclone track and deepening rate;
• Shapiro–Keyser frontal evolution;
• the hooked cloud head;
• the bent-back front;
• dry-slot intrusion;
• descending air trajectories;
• mid-level wind speeds;
• relative humidity;
• evaporative-cooling potential;
• conditional symmetric instability;
• boundary-layer mixing;
• the predicted surface gust footprint.

Impact forecasting

Even when confidence in a sting jet is limited, forecasts may still highlight a narrow corridor with potential for exceptional gusts.

For the public, the crucial information is the expected wind impact rather than whether the technical term appears in the warning.

Satellite Signs of a Possible Sting Jet

Satellite imagery provides some of the most important visual clues.

Hooked cloud head

The cloud head curls around the cyclone center into a scorpion-tail shape.

Dry slot

A region of dry air cuts into the cloud shield and sharpens the cloud-head tip.

Cloud-head fragmentation

Cloud may thin or break apart where evaporation and descent are occurring.

Rapid cyclone evolution

Satellite loops may show the cyclone becoming more tightly wrapped over only a few hours.

Limitations

Satellite imagery reveals cloud structure but does not directly measure the complete descending wind current.

Model trajectories and observations are still required.

How Weather Models Diagnose Sting Jets

Sting jets are mesoscale features, so models need sufficient resolution to represent the cloud head, frontal gradients and descending airstream.

Air-parcel trajectories

Forecasters and researchers trace modeled air parcels backward and forward through the cyclone.

A possible sting-jet trajectory should show air:

• originating in the cloud head;
• moving toward its hooked tip;
• descending several kilometers;
• accelerating or retaining high horizontal speed;
• reaching the lower atmosphere near the strongest surface winds.

Instability diagnostics

Models are examined for conditional symmetric instability and other forms of slantwise instability.

Moisture fields

Relative humidity and cloud-water fields help identify evaporation and cloud-head erosion.

Maximum-gust fields

High-resolution output may reveal a narrow wind maximum distinct from the broader cold-conveyor-belt wind region.

Radar and Surface Observations

Weather radar

Radar helps identify precipitation bands, frontal structures and cloud-head evolution.

Doppler radar may measure strong winds above the surface, although offshore coverage can be limited.

Weather stations

Surface stations reveal:

• rapid wind acceleration;
• peak gusts;
• pressure changes;
• temperature and humidity shifts;
• the width and movement of the damage corridor.

Aircraft and buoys

Aircraft observations and ocean buoys provide valuable information over marine regions where land stations are absent.

Damage surveys

After the storm, tree falls, structural damage and power failures help reconstruct the wind footprint.

Why Are Sting Jets Difficult to Forecast?

Small scale

The sting jet is narrow compared with the cyclone, so modest track errors can shift the strongest winds far from the predicted location.

Short lifetime

The feature may develop and disappear within only several hours.

Complex physics

Cloud evaporation, instability, turbulence and boundary-layer mixing must all be represented accurately.

Offshore development

Many storms intensify over the Atlantic where direct observations are sparse.

Model resolution

Coarser global models may predict the cyclone correctly but smooth out the narrow sting-jet wind maximum.

Competing wind mechanisms

A cyclone may contain damaging winds from the cold conveyor belt and pressure gradient even if no sting jet forms.

Can Bomb Cyclones Produce Sting Jets?

Yes. Some sting jets occur inside rapidly deepening extratropical cyclones commonly described as bomb cyclones.

Explosive deepening supports:

• very strong pressure gradients;
• rapid frontal evolution;
• powerful winds aloft;
• a tightly wrapped cloud head;
• rapid dry-slot intrusion.

These characteristics can create a favorable environment for sting-jet development.

Does every bomb cyclone have a sting jet?

No. Bombogenesis describes how quickly the central pressure falls. It does not specify the detailed cloud-head airflow.

A bomb cyclone may produce widespread damaging winds entirely through its pressure gradient and conveyor-belt circulation.

Related guide:
Bomb Cyclones and Explosive Cyclogenesis Explained.

Sting Jet vs Cold Conveyor Belt

The cold conveyor belt is a broader airflow wrapping around the cold side of an extratropical cyclone.

It can produce widespread severe winds near the bent-back front even without a sting jet.

In real storms, the two wind regions may overlap or become difficult to separate using surface observations alone.

Sting Jet vs Microburst and Downburst

Both involve descending air and destructive straight-line winds, but they occur in completely different parent weather systems.

Related guide:
Microbursts and Downbursts Explained.

Sting Jet vs Tornado

A tornado is a rotating column of air extending from a convective storm toward the surface.

A sting jet is a descending non-tornadic airstream inside an extratropical cyclone.

Sting Jet vs Derecho

A derecho is a long-lived convective windstorm produced by an organized thunderstorm system.

Both derechos and sting jets can create long damage corridors, but their storm dynamics differ.

Related guide:
Derechos Explained.

Sting Jet vs Jet Stream

The similar names create confusion, but the two phenomena are very different.

Jet stream

The jet stream is a broad band of fast-moving wind high in the upper troposphere.

It helps steer and intensify extratropical cyclones.

Sting jet

A sting jet is a much smaller descending airflow within one cyclone.

The upper-level jet stream may help create the parent storm environment, but the sting jet is not simply the jet stream touching the ground.

Historic Windstorms Associated With Sting Jets

The sting-jet concept was developed partly through reanalysis of destructive European windstorms.

Frequently discussed cases include:

• the Great Storm of October 1987;
• Cyclone Lothar in December 1999;
• Cyclone Gudrun or Erwin in January 2005;
• Cyclone Tini or Darwin in February 2014;
• other rapidly deepening North Atlantic storms with narrow extreme-wind swaths.

Not every historic storm has equally strong observational proof of a sting jet.

Some events are diagnosed through later model reconstruction because the relevant airflow occurred before modern high-resolution forecasting and satellite analysis became available.

Case Study: The Great Storm of 1987

The Great Storm of October 1987 caused exceptional wind damage across southern England and northern France.

The cyclone became one of the most important events in the development of sting-jet research.

Why the storm was significant

• extreme winds affected a narrow corridor;
• millions of trees were damaged or uprooted;
• buildings and power infrastructure failed;
• the storm intensified rapidly;
• the most destructive winds were not fully explained by older cyclone models.

Later reanalysis

Researchers reconstructed the cyclone using atmospheric models and found evidence consistent with a descending sting-jet airstream.

The storm helped establish that some extratropical cyclones contain a distinct wind maximum descending from the cloud head.

Case Study: Cyclone Lothar in 1999

Cyclone Lothar crossed western and central Europe on December 26, 1999.

The storm produced devastating winds across France, Switzerland, Germany and neighboring countries.

Major impacts

• extensive forest blowdown;
• major transport disruption;
• widespread power outages;
• building and roof damage;
• numerous casualties.

Sting-jet interpretation

Lothar’s rapid development and narrow severe-wind regions have made it an important case in discussions of sting jets and European windstorm dynamics.

Its impacts also demonstrated how extreme winds over saturated winter ground can devastate forests.

Case Study: Cyclone Gudrun in 2005

Cyclone Gudrun, also known as Erwin, struck northern Europe in January 2005.

Sweden and surrounding regions experienced major forest destruction, power outages and transport disruption.

Why forests were vulnerable

• strong winds affected large forested areas;
• soil conditions reduced root stability;
• modern plantation forests contained similarly sized trees;
• fallen trees damaged roads and electricity networks.

The event is frequently studied as an example of a severe European windstorm containing multiple powerful airstreams, including possible sting-jet contributions.

Case Study: Cyclone Tini in 2014

Cyclone Tini, also known as Darwin, affected Ireland and the United Kingdom in February 2014.

The storm produced damaging winds, coastal impacts, power outages and travel disruption.

Scientific importance

Tini has been examined using modern high-resolution models and observations, providing a more detailed view of how sting-jet-like airflows interact with the cyclone boundary layer.

Such modern cases help improve:

• air-parcel trajectory analysis;
• sting-jet diagnostics;
• maximum-gust forecasting;
• impact-based wind warnings.

Could Climate Change Affect Sting Jets?

Sting jets depend on detailed cyclone structure, atmospheric instability, moisture and storm-track behavior.

Climate change can alter these ingredients, but future changes are not described by one simple trend.

Possible influences

• changes in North Atlantic storm tracks;
• changes in cyclone intensity;
• greater atmospheric moisture;
• changes in temperature gradients;
• changes in the frequency of Shapiro–Keyser cyclones;
• changes in stability and cloud microphysics.

Damage may change even without more sting jets

Future losses also depend on:

• population and infrastructure exposure;
• forest management;
• building standards;
• soil saturation;
• coastal development;
• power-network resilience.

Forecast Warning Signs of a Possible Sting Jet

Members of the public cannot reliably identify a sting jet by looking at the sky.

The relevant warning signs come from professional forecasts and storm analysis.

• A rapidly deepening North Atlantic or European cyclone is forecast.
• The storm develops a Shapiro–Keyser frontal structure.
• A hooked cloud head forms near the cyclone center.
• A pronounced dry slot intrudes into the cloud head.
• Models show rapidly descending air from the cloud-head tip.
• Conditional symmetric instability is present.
• A narrow corridor of exceptional modeled gusts appears.
• Official warnings mention destructive or exceptionally severe winds.
• The most intense winds are forecast near the bent-back front.

What the public should monitor

Focus on:

• official high-wind warnings;
• expected peak gusts;
• storm arrival time;
• travel restrictions;
• coastal warnings;
• power-outage preparation;
• school and transport closures.

Sting-Jet and Severe Windstorm Safety

Before the storm

• Secure outdoor furniture, bins, signs and loose objects.
• Move vehicles away from large trees when possible.
• Charge phones, batteries and emergency lights.
• Prepare for prolonged power outages.
• Check transport cancellations and road restrictions.
• Bring pets indoors.
• Avoid unnecessary forest and coastal travel.

During the strongest winds

• Remain inside a sturdy building.
• Stay away from windows and glass doors.
• Use a lower interior room if the building is exposed.
• Do not shelter beneath trees.
• Avoid driving high-sided vehicles.
• Do not approach downed electrical lines.
• Expect falling roof tiles, branches and debris.

If driving

• Reduce speed.
• Keep both hands on the steering wheel.
• Allow extra space around other vehicles.
• Expect abrupt crosswinds on bridges and exposed roads.
• Leave the road safely if conditions become uncontrollable.

Near the coast

• Stay away from sea walls, cliffs and exposed piers.
• Do not approach large breaking waves.
• Follow storm-surge and coastal-flood warnings.
• Secure boats before winds reach dangerous levels.

After the storm

• Watch for weakened trees and hanging branches.
• Avoid damaged buildings.
• Treat fallen wires as live.
• Check on vulnerable neighbors when safe.
• Use generators outdoors and away from windows.

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